Cichlids are distributed in Central and South America, Texas (1 species), West Indies, Africa, Madagascar, Syria, Israel, Iran, Sri Lanka, and coastal southern India. Some species widely introduced .
Body shape quite variable, mostly moderately deep and compressed . A nostril on each side of head . Interrupted lateral line in most species. Scales in lateral lines may be over 100, usually 20-50. Dorsal fin usually with 7-25 spines and 5-30 soft rays . Spines in anal fin 3-15 (generally 3); soft rays 4-15 (a few with 30). Subocular shelf absent. About 80 cm maximum length , in Boulengerochromis microlepis. Colorful cichlids are reared as aquarium fish. Breeding activities highly organized. Parental care in 3 forms: mouthbrooding, substratebrooding, and substratebrooding of eggs then mouthbrooding of young. Species flocks are reported from Africa.
The cichlids are the most species-rich non-Ostariophysan fish family in freshwaters world-wide, and one of the major vertebrate families, with at least 1300 species and with estimates approaching 1900 species (Kullander, 1998). The geographical distribution includes freshwaters of Africa (900 valid species, estimated more than 1300 species), the Jordan Valley in the Middle East (four species), Iran (one species), southern India and Sri Lanka (3 species, also in brackish water), Madagascar (17 valid species, some also in brackish water), Cuba and Hispaniola (4 valid species, some in brackish water), North America and isthmian Central America (95 valid species), and South America (290 valid species ) (Kullander, 1998, updated).
Cichlids are known by family or genus-level local names , commonly with an adjective to distinguish well-marked species. Higher level names include bujurqui (Peru, most cichlids), acar� (Brazil, most cichlids), mochoroca (Venezuela), mojarra (Ecuador, Colombia, throughout Central America), krobia (Surinam), prapra (French Guiana). Cichla species are known locally as pav�n (Venezuela, Colombia) or tucunar� (Brazil, Peru), the latter name expressed as lukanani (Guyana), toekoenali (Surinam), toukounar� (French Guiana) or similar names in the Guianas. Crenicichla species are known as jacund� in Brazil, a�ash�a in Peru, angoumot (French Guiana), mataguaro (Colombia, Venezuela), datra fisi (Surinam), cabeza amarga (Argentina and Uruguay).
Cichlids are recognized by several unambiguous anatomical synapomorphies. 1. The loss of a major structural association between parts A2 and Aw of the adductor mandibulae muscle and the musculous insertion of a large ventral section of A2 onto the posterior border of the ascending process of the anguloarticular (Stiassny, 1981); 2. The presence of an extensive cartilaginous cap on the anterior margin of each second epibranchial bone (Stiassny, 1981); 3. The presence of an expanded head of each fourth epibranchial bone (Stiassny, 1981); 4. The presence of characteristically shaped and distributed micro-branchiospines on the gill arches (Stiassny, 1981); 5. The transversus dorsalis anterior muscle is subdivided into four distinct parts (Liem & Greenwood). 6. The stomach has an extendible blind pouch (Zihler, 1982) 7. The stomach has a left hand exit to the anterior intestine and the first intestinal loop is on the left side (Zihler, 1982) 8. The sagitta features an anterocaudal pseudocolliculum having a long and thick ventral part which is separated from the crista inferior by a long, deep and sharp furrow (Gaemers, 1985). 9. Short paired hypapophyses on the third and/or fourth vertebral centra (Kullander, 1998).
Cichlid diversity has been explained both by their advanced brood care and by the versatile design of the pharyngeal jaw complex used for food mastication. The unpaired lower pharyngeal toothplate and the opposed upper pharyngeal tooth plates are contained in a muscular sling characterizing labroid fishes . There is considerable variation in the shape and of the toothplates and associated dentition, reflecting diet specializations. The oral jaws are generally highly movable and protrusible , and tooth shape varies greatly, although most Neotropical cichlids have simple , subconical, unicuspid teeth, whereas African cichlids commonly have laterally bicuspid or tricuspid oral teeth.
Among Neotropical fishes they can be recognized externally by the possession of 7-24 (usually 13-16) spines in the dorsal fin, 2-12 (usually 3, rarely more than 5) anal-fin spines; and a single nostril on each side of the head. The lateral line is usually divided into one anterior upper portion ending below the end of the dorsal-fin base , and a posterior lower portion running along the middle of the caudal peduncle. Among Neotropical taxa, lengths range from about 25-30 mm adult size in Apistogramma and Taeniacara, to about 1 meter in Cichla temensis. Most taxa are in the interval 10-20 cm, however. Most Neotropical cichlids occupy lentic habitats within rivers and streams ; but there is also a number of moderately to strongly adapted rheophilic species. The latter include many Crenicichla species and the genera Teleocichla and Retroculus, which are distributed mainly in the Brazilian and Guianan highlands.
The majority of the Neotropical cichlids feed on a variety of invertebrates and some plant matter, and specializations among those species remain little investigated. Cichla, large Crenicichla species, Petenia, Parachromis, Caquetaia, Astronotus, and Acaronia, feed on fishes and large invertebrates. Chaetobranchopsis, Chaetobranchus and Satanoperca acuticeps are plankton feeders . Most Neotropical Cichlidae are moderately to strongly sex dimorphic , and breed pairwise. Eggs are typically deposited on a substrate and both parents guard offspring over several weeks, even for some time after the young are free-swimming . Smaller species, particularly in the genus Apistogramma, may be strongly sexually dimorphic. Sexes differ in color and the female is smaller than the male and assumes all or most of the care for the eggs and young. Oral incubation, or mouthbrooding, has been recorded for many Geophagus, Gymnogeophagus, and Satanoperca species, but also for one species of Aequidens and one species of Heros. Mouthbrooding species are usually biparental , and eggs are guarded on a substrate prior to oral incubation which starts with advanced eggs or newly hatched larvae. A few mouthbrooding species practice exclusive maternal brood care, with a minimum delay between egg-laying and oral incubation (Gymnogeophagus balzanii, NE Colombian Geophagus species).
Geographical ranges are commonly limited to a single river or even one or a few streams, reflecting both ecological constraints and drainage basin histories. A few Neotropical cichlids are recorded from brackish water conditions. The northernmost species are Herichthys cyanoguttatus from the lower Rio Grande drainage in Texas, USA, on the Atlantic coast, and �Cichlasoma beani�, which reaches north to the R�o Yaqu� on the Pacific coast of Mexico. In South America cichlids are recorded from virtually all river drainages, but rarely occupy elevations over 500 m ASL, and generally remain below 200 m ASL. Cichlids are absent from the R�o Mara��n above the Pongo de Manseriche and from the R�o Ucayali drainage upstream of Atalaya (the mouth of the R�o Urubamba [R�o Vilcanota] and R�o Tombo [R�o Apurimac]). There are four permanent cichlid species occurring on the island of Trinidad, but no cichlids are found on any other islands close to the Venezuelan coast. Most Atlantic coastal rivers of Brazil have 1-3 species of cichlids. The southern limit of the family in South America is not well documented, but may be in the lower R�o Negro in Argentina, which river marks the northern limit of Patagonia. On the Pacific slope , cichlids are found in a succession of permanent rivers south to the R�o Jequetepeque or perhaps even to slightly south of Lima, Peru.
Because of the varied behavior and often attractive colors and moderate size, cichlids are commonly kept as ornamental fish. Practically all genera and more than half of the species have been kept in aquaria at some time. The traditionally most important aquarium species are Pterophyllum and Symphysodon species, the former often representing the aquarium hobby in logotypes .
Sportfishing is concentrated on the Cichla species for which there is a strong North American and Brazilian market including sport fishing safaris and Tucunar� fishing contests predominantly in Brazil (Kelber, 1999). All the larger species are used as food fish , within a traditional artisanal and subsistence fishery , and all local markets in the lowland Amazon and Orinoco drainages offer Cichla, Astronotus, and other available species of sizes over 10 cm (Ferreira et al. , 1998, for a market survey at Santar�m). Astronotus species, and to some extent Cichla species are subject to aquaculture in Brazil.
The family Cichlidae was first monographed by Heckel (1840), based on the Natterer collection from Brazil (illustrations in Riedl-Dorn, 2000). Another early major treatise is by Jardine (1843), based on the Schomburgk collection from Guyana, Brazil and Venezuela (Kullander & Stawikowski, 1997a-b, for identifications ). Steindachner (1875) worked on the Thayer expedition collection of Amazonian cichlids, but did not add much beyond the work of Heckel. G�nther (1868, based on several shorter papers) described and illustrated a large part of the Central American cichlid fauna , followed by Regan (1906-1908). Pellegrin (1904) revised the family with diagnoses of all genera and species known to him. Much of Pellegrin�s efforts with the Neotropical taxa were improved upon by Regan�s series of generic revisions in the next two years (Regan, 1905-1906), which remained the platform for all Neotropical cichlid systematics until the 1980s. The first modern phylogenetic revision of the Neotropical cichlids was presented by Cichocki (1976), and most recently Kullander (1988) and Farias et al. (1999) have provided phylogenetic hypotheses based on morphology and molecular data respectively. A formal classification down to tribe is provided by Kullander (1988). Scientific general reviews of the family are provided by Keenleyside (1991) and Barlow (2000). There is no scientific monograph covering all Neotropical cichlid species, but numerous aquarium books of variable quality, of which Stawikowski & Werner (1998) may be consulted for the most updated compilation of cichlasomine cichlids. Country monographs of cichlids are available for Peru (Kullander, 1986) and Surinam (Kullander & Nijssen, 1989). Bussing (1998: 293-384) summarizes data on 24 Costa Rican cichlid species; Keith et al. (2000: 146-229) summarize data for 38 cichlid species from French Guiana and adjacent countries; Greenfield & Thomerson (1997:184-206) cover 19 species from Belize Recent generic revisions cover Crenicichla (Ploeg, 1991; innumerable errors and inconsistencies), Gymnogeophagus (Reis & Malabarba, 1988), Apistogramma (Kullander, 1980, somewhat outdated), Cichlasoma (Kullander, 1983), Teleocichla (Kullander, 1988), Retroculus (Gosse, 1971), Geophagus s. lato (Gosse, 1976, somewhat outdated), Biotoecus (Kullander, 1989), and Mesonauta (Kullander & Silfvergrip, 1991). Kullander (1998) estimated that there are about ten undescribed North-Central American cichlid taxa and about 160 undescribed South American taxa.
Numerous problems of species discrimination remain. Some of the most enigmatic cases includes �Cichlasoma� urophthalmus, of which Hubbs (1936) described numerous subspecies. Some of these taxa are certainly distinct species, but the status of highly localized subspecies from the Yucat�n peninsula, which are based on one or very few specimens, remains a subject for revision.
Another source of frustration concerns the generic assignment of Central American taxa, and a few South American taxa, which were excluded from the catch-all genus Cichlasoma by Kullander (1983). Most of these are now recognized in well-diagnosed genera (Kullander, 1986, 1996, Kullander & Hartel, 1997), but several are kept with the generic denomination �Cichlasoma� which is judged better than to include them in genera to which they certainly do not belong. On the whole it is not satisfactory to have one-third of the Neotropical cichlid fauna without a generic name , illustrating a real problem with the more formalized procedure of naming species, but it could also signify a safeguarding against doubtful species. The current estimate of 450 South American taxa is based on species already represented in museum collections; it can be assumed that new collections will bring in many more new taxa.The family Cichlidae belongs to the Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) and the Order Perciformes. It contains 105 genera and 1300 species. It may be found in Brackish , and Freshwater environments and is primarily Secondary freshwater. Many members of this family are used in the aquarium trade. Reproductively, most members of this family are bearers and guarders . The main mode of swimming of adult fish in this family is carangiform . Compared with other fish, the activity level of this family tends to be normal. Members of this family have been dated back to the Eocene epoch of the Tertiary period. This family may be found from 37° n to 35° s and 110° w to 84° e. Etymology of this family name : Greek, kichle = a kind of fish.
Taxonomy[ Back to top ]
•Domain: Eukaryota () - Whittaker & Margulis,1978 - eukaryotes
•Kingdom: Animalia () - Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
•
Body shape quite variable, mostly moderately deep and compressed . A nostril on each side of head . Interrupted lateral line in most species. Scales in lateral lines may be over 100, usually 20-50. Dorsal fin usually with 7-25 spines and 5-30 soft rays . Spines in anal fin 3-15 (generally 3); soft rays 4-15 (a few with 30). Subocular shelf absent. About 80 cm maximum length , in Boulengerochromis microlepis. Colorful cichlids are reared as aquarium fish. Breeding activities highly organized. Parental care in 3 forms: mouthbrooding, substratebrooding, and substratebrooding of eggs then mouthbrooding of young. Species flocks are reported from Africa.
The cichlids are the most species-rich non-Ostariophysan fish family in freshwaters world-wide, and one of the major vertebrate families, with at least 1300 species and with estimates approaching 1900 species (Kullander, 1998). The geographical distribution includes freshwaters of Africa (900 valid species, estimated more than 1300 species), the Jordan Valley in the Middle East (four species), Iran (one species), southern India and Sri Lanka (3 species, also in brackish water), Madagascar (17 valid species, some also in brackish water), Cuba and Hispaniola (4 valid species, some in brackish water), North America and isthmian Central America (95 valid species), and South America (290 valid species ) (Kullander, 1998, updated).
Cichlids are known by family or genus-level local names , commonly with an adjective to distinguish well-marked species. Higher level names include bujurqui (Peru, most cichlids), acar� (Brazil, most cichlids), mochoroca (Venezuela), mojarra (Ecuador, Colombia, throughout Central America), krobia (Surinam), prapra (French Guiana). Cichla species are known locally as pav�n (Venezuela, Colombia) or tucunar� (Brazil, Peru), the latter name expressed as lukanani (Guyana), toekoenali (Surinam), toukounar� (French Guiana) or similar names in the Guianas. Crenicichla species are known as jacund� in Brazil, a�ash�a in Peru, angoumot (French Guiana), mataguaro (Colombia, Venezuela), datra fisi (Surinam), cabeza amarga (Argentina and Uruguay).
Cichlids are recognized by several unambiguous anatomical synapomorphies. 1. The loss of a major structural association between parts A2 and Aw of the adductor mandibulae muscle and the musculous insertion of a large ventral section of A2 onto the posterior border of the ascending process of the anguloarticular (Stiassny, 1981); 2. The presence of an extensive cartilaginous cap on the anterior margin of each second epibranchial bone (Stiassny, 1981); 3. The presence of an expanded head of each fourth epibranchial bone (Stiassny, 1981); 4. The presence of characteristically shaped and distributed micro-branchiospines on the gill arches (Stiassny, 1981); 5. The transversus dorsalis anterior muscle is subdivided into four distinct parts (Liem & Greenwood). 6. The stomach has an extendible blind pouch (Zihler, 1982) 7. The stomach has a left hand exit to the anterior intestine and the first intestinal loop is on the left side (Zihler, 1982) 8. The sagitta features an anterocaudal pseudocolliculum having a long and thick ventral part which is separated from the crista inferior by a long, deep and sharp furrow (Gaemers, 1985). 9. Short paired hypapophyses on the third and/or fourth vertebral centra (Kullander, 1998).
Cichlid diversity has been explained both by their advanced brood care and by the versatile design of the pharyngeal jaw complex used for food mastication. The unpaired lower pharyngeal toothplate and the opposed upper pharyngeal tooth plates are contained in a muscular sling characterizing labroid fishes . There is considerable variation in the shape and of the toothplates and associated dentition, reflecting diet specializations. The oral jaws are generally highly movable and protrusible , and tooth shape varies greatly, although most Neotropical cichlids have simple , subconical, unicuspid teeth, whereas African cichlids commonly have laterally bicuspid or tricuspid oral teeth.
Among Neotropical fishes they can be recognized externally by the possession of 7-24 (usually 13-16) spines in the dorsal fin, 2-12 (usually 3, rarely more than 5) anal-fin spines; and a single nostril on each side of the head. The lateral line is usually divided into one anterior upper portion ending below the end of the dorsal-fin base , and a posterior lower portion running along the middle of the caudal peduncle. Among Neotropical taxa, lengths range from about 25-30 mm adult size in Apistogramma and Taeniacara, to about 1 meter in Cichla temensis. Most taxa are in the interval 10-20 cm, however. Most Neotropical cichlids occupy lentic habitats within rivers and streams ; but there is also a number of moderately to strongly adapted rheophilic species. The latter include many Crenicichla species and the genera Teleocichla and Retroculus, which are distributed mainly in the Brazilian and Guianan highlands.
The majority of the Neotropical cichlids feed on a variety of invertebrates and some plant matter, and specializations among those species remain little investigated. Cichla, large Crenicichla species, Petenia, Parachromis, Caquetaia, Astronotus, and Acaronia, feed on fishes and large invertebrates. Chaetobranchopsis, Chaetobranchus and Satanoperca acuticeps are plankton feeders . Most Neotropical Cichlidae are moderately to strongly sex dimorphic , and breed pairwise. Eggs are typically deposited on a substrate and both parents guard offspring over several weeks, even for some time after the young are free-swimming . Smaller species, particularly in the genus Apistogramma, may be strongly sexually dimorphic. Sexes differ in color and the female is smaller than the male and assumes all or most of the care for the eggs and young. Oral incubation, or mouthbrooding, has been recorded for many Geophagus, Gymnogeophagus, and Satanoperca species, but also for one species of Aequidens and one species of Heros. Mouthbrooding species are usually biparental , and eggs are guarded on a substrate prior to oral incubation which starts with advanced eggs or newly hatched larvae. A few mouthbrooding species practice exclusive maternal brood care, with a minimum delay between egg-laying and oral incubation (Gymnogeophagus balzanii, NE Colombian Geophagus species).
Geographical ranges are commonly limited to a single river or even one or a few streams, reflecting both ecological constraints and drainage basin histories. A few Neotropical cichlids are recorded from brackish water conditions. The northernmost species are Herichthys cyanoguttatus from the lower Rio Grande drainage in Texas, USA, on the Atlantic coast, and �Cichlasoma beani�, which reaches north to the R�o Yaqu� on the Pacific coast of Mexico. In South America cichlids are recorded from virtually all river drainages, but rarely occupy elevations over 500 m ASL, and generally remain below 200 m ASL. Cichlids are absent from the R�o Mara��n above the Pongo de Manseriche and from the R�o Ucayali drainage upstream of Atalaya (the mouth of the R�o Urubamba [R�o Vilcanota] and R�o Tombo [R�o Apurimac]). There are four permanent cichlid species occurring on the island of Trinidad, but no cichlids are found on any other islands close to the Venezuelan coast. Most Atlantic coastal rivers of Brazil have 1-3 species of cichlids. The southern limit of the family in South America is not well documented, but may be in the lower R�o Negro in Argentina, which river marks the northern limit of Patagonia. On the Pacific slope , cichlids are found in a succession of permanent rivers south to the R�o Jequetepeque or perhaps even to slightly south of Lima, Peru.
Because of the varied behavior and often attractive colors and moderate size, cichlids are commonly kept as ornamental fish. Practically all genera and more than half of the species have been kept in aquaria at some time. The traditionally most important aquarium species are Pterophyllum and Symphysodon species, the former often representing the aquarium hobby in logotypes .
Sportfishing is concentrated on the Cichla species for which there is a strong North American and Brazilian market including sport fishing safaris and Tucunar� fishing contests predominantly in Brazil (Kelber, 1999). All the larger species are used as food fish , within a traditional artisanal and subsistence fishery , and all local markets in the lowland Amazon and Orinoco drainages offer Cichla, Astronotus, and other available species of sizes over 10 cm (Ferreira et al. , 1998, for a market survey at Santar�m). Astronotus species, and to some extent Cichla species are subject to aquaculture in Brazil.
The family Cichlidae was first monographed by Heckel (1840), based on the Natterer collection from Brazil (illustrations in Riedl-Dorn, 2000). Another early major treatise is by Jardine (1843), based on the Schomburgk collection from Guyana, Brazil and Venezuela (Kullander & Stawikowski, 1997a-b, for identifications ). Steindachner (1875) worked on the Thayer expedition collection of Amazonian cichlids, but did not add much beyond the work of Heckel. G�nther (1868, based on several shorter papers) described and illustrated a large part of the Central American cichlid fauna , followed by Regan (1906-1908). Pellegrin (1904) revised the family with diagnoses of all genera and species known to him. Much of Pellegrin�s efforts with the Neotropical taxa were improved upon by Regan�s series of generic revisions in the next two years (Regan, 1905-1906), which remained the platform for all Neotropical cichlid systematics until the 1980s. The first modern phylogenetic revision of the Neotropical cichlids was presented by Cichocki (1976), and most recently Kullander (1988) and Farias et al. (1999) have provided phylogenetic hypotheses based on morphology and molecular data respectively. A formal classification down to tribe is provided by Kullander (1988). Scientific general reviews of the family are provided by Keenleyside (1991) and Barlow (2000). There is no scientific monograph covering all Neotropical cichlid species, but numerous aquarium books of variable quality, of which Stawikowski & Werner (1998) may be consulted for the most updated compilation of cichlasomine cichlids. Country monographs of cichlids are available for Peru (Kullander, 1986) and Surinam (Kullander & Nijssen, 1989). Bussing (1998: 293-384) summarizes data on 24 Costa Rican cichlid species; Keith et al. (2000: 146-229) summarize data for 38 cichlid species from French Guiana and adjacent countries; Greenfield & Thomerson (1997:184-206) cover 19 species from Belize Recent generic revisions cover Crenicichla (Ploeg, 1991; innumerable errors and inconsistencies), Gymnogeophagus (Reis & Malabarba, 1988), Apistogramma (Kullander, 1980, somewhat outdated), Cichlasoma (Kullander, 1983), Teleocichla (Kullander, 1988), Retroculus (Gosse, 1971), Geophagus s. lato (Gosse, 1976, somewhat outdated), Biotoecus (Kullander, 1989), and Mesonauta (Kullander & Silfvergrip, 1991). Kullander (1998) estimated that there are about ten undescribed North-Central American cichlid taxa and about 160 undescribed South American taxa.
Numerous problems of species discrimination remain. Some of the most enigmatic cases includes �Cichlasoma� urophthalmus, of which Hubbs (1936) described numerous subspecies. Some of these taxa are certainly distinct species, but the status of highly localized subspecies from the Yucat�n peninsula, which are based on one or very few specimens, remains a subject for revision.
Another source of frustration concerns the generic assignment of Central American taxa, and a few South American taxa, which were excluded from the catch-all genus Cichlasoma by Kullander (1983). Most of these are now recognized in well-diagnosed genera (Kullander, 1986, 1996, Kullander & Hartel, 1997), but several are kept with the generic denomination �Cichlasoma� which is judged better than to include them in genera to which they certainly do not belong. On the whole it is not satisfactory to have one-third of the Neotropical cichlid fauna without a generic name , illustrating a real problem with the more formalized procedure of naming species, but it could also signify a safeguarding against doubtful species. The current estimate of 450 South American taxa is based on species already represented in museum collections; it can be assumed that new collections will bring in many more new taxa.The family Cichlidae belongs to the Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) and the Order Perciformes. It contains 105 genera and 1300 species. It may be found in Brackish , and Freshwater environments and is primarily Secondary freshwater. Many members of this family are used in the aquarium trade. Reproductively, most members of this family are bearers and guarders . The main mode of swimming of adult fish in this family is carangiform . Compared with other fish, the activity level of this family tends to be normal. Members of this family have been dated back to the Eocene epoch of the Tertiary period. This family may be found from 37° n to 35° s and 110° w to 84° e. Etymology of this family name : Greek, kichle = a kind of fish.
Taxonomy[ Back to top ]
•Domain: Eukaryota () - Whittaker & Margulis,1978 - eukaryotes
•Kingdom: Animalia () - Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
•
